How did Native, European, and African people mix here, and what's still unknown?

"Over the past five centuries, European-driven colonization has profoundly transformed the continent, leading to the widespread extermination of Indigenous populations and giving rise to a complex mosaic of diverse and multiethnic surviving Indigenous and admixed groups 11 ."

"We inferred the N e history of genetic clusters from within-population coalescence rates ( Methods ) and found that over the past 10,000 years, Indigenous American effective population sizes declined by 40–90%, consistent with previous reports 34 ."

"some Indigenous South American populations 4 and with a ‘non-Anzick’ SNA lineage related to ancient California Channel Islands individuals who largely replaced local South American groups, especially in the central Andes 5 ."

"Several Indigenous groups, including the Awajún, Ayoreo, Guarani, Karitiana, Sirionó, Suruí and Tsimané, show significant excess genetic affinity to Australasians relative to other present-day populations ( Z > 3; Supplementary Table 11 )."

"Models with rank 0 and rank 1 were rejected ( P = 0; P = 1.8 × 10 −25 ), whereas rank 2 was not ( P = 1; Supplementary Table 10 ). Thus, one or two ancestry streams are insufficient, and at least three distinct dispersal events from genetically differentiated sources are required to explain the observed patterns of genetic diversity."

"But the genomes also revealed "a previously unrecognized third dispersal into South America," the researchers wrote in the study, that "probably occurred at least 1,300 years ago" from Mesoamerican-related groups. Although that timeframe roughly matches up with the collapse of Mesoamerican cities like Teotihuacan , which declined between A.D. 650 and 750, the genetic data do...es not point to a si"

""What we see is a more gradual and complex process, probably involving increasing connectivity and gene flow between Mesoamerica, the Caribbean and South America over time," Hünemeier said."

"The Indigenous American Genomic Diversity Project, which nearly tripled the number of Indigenous genomes that scientists have sequenced, also revealed that th...e Americas' Indigenous population was less genetically diverse than other continental human groups but that it also had more genetic diversity than previously thought, including genes important for surviving in the novel environments of th"

"El proceso, denominado en la cultura nacional con el término «crisol de razas» (equivalente al «melting pot» ―‘crisol de fundición’― estadounidense), registra una intensidad inusitada en Argentina, produciendo el mestizaje no solo de las tres grandes ramas étnico-culturales (europeos, indígenas y africanos), sino de las decenas de etnias particulares que integran cada una de esas ramas (italianos,"

"Durante la etapa colonial, el mestizaje de varones españoles y mujeres indígenas y africanas estuvo marcado principalmente por las relaciones de dominación entre los colonizadores y los indígenas encomen"

"Un estudio de los archivos históricos de México realizado en 2018 ha apoyado estas últimas conclusiones."

"En relación con la población local la corona empezó por promover matrimonios como preferible para la estabilidad social que el concubinato que en los hechos estaba sucediendo... Frente a situaciones como esa, la corona decretó —en 1528— que se daría preferencia para puestos oficiales a los españoles casados y, en 1538, que la misma preferencia se observaría"

"Francisco González Paniagua nos informa que en Paraguay "algunos españoles tienen setenta mujeres, a menos que sean muy pobres ninguno tenía menos que cinco o seis, la mayoría de quince a veinte y de veinte a cuarenta"."

"Ancient Native American DNA shows that all four lineages were present before European contact in North America, and at least two were present in South America."

"In many cases, particularly in the Arctic, the Americas, and Europe, aDNA has revealed historical demographic patterns in a way that could not be resolved by analyzing present-day genomes alone."

"The Native American contribution to present-day Cubans accounted for 33% of the maternal lineages, whereas Africa and Eurasia contributed 45% and 22% of the lineages, respectively... Strikingly, no Native American lineages were found for the Y-chromosome, for which the Eurasian and African contributions were around 80% and 20%, respectively"

"The treaty with the Choctaws in September 27, 1830, was the first under which emigration took place extensively ; and it was not until the following year that it commenced with much vigor under that with the Cherokees of 1828"

"The six named by Mr Bond as being in the service in 1838, are General Smith, Superintendent ofthe removal of the Cherokees, numbering 18,000; Major Up Upshur, - shur, Upshur, the removal of the Chickasaws, 5,500"

"The expense of the superintend superintenddents, - dents, superintenddents, agents sub agents, and interpreters, in 1628, was $61,970. in 1838, it is $38,800 °; less in 1838, $23,170."

"En contraste, en Estados Unidos se aplicó un modelo de segregación racial impidió que las personas de origen mixto fueran plenamente aceptadas socialmente y reconocidas oficialmente por las instituciones."

"En ciudades portuarias como Sevilla y Cádiz , hubo presencia de población de origen africano, tanto esclavizada como libre, que formó parte del entramado social urbano y contribuyó, en cierta medida, a los procesos de mestizaje local."

"Las Islas Canarias fueron escenario de un proceso de mestizaje entre los aborígenes canarios , colonos europeos y población africana traída como mano de obra."

"Durante los siglos XVI y XVII , se implantaron en la Monarquía Hispánica los llamados Estatutos de limpieza de sangre , un mecanismo de discriminación legal dirigido principalmente contra los judeoconversos —y, en menor medida, contra los moriscos —, conocidos como « cristianos nuevos »."