Why Hasn't Anyone Gone to Mars Yet? Machines, Money, or a Trip With No Return?

"In 2013, the space venture attracted applications from 202,586 people in just five months, drawing interest from some 140 countries. The list was cut down to 1,058 finalists — who then went through several more rounds of reductions."

"The company had recently whittled down its large application list of would-be Martians to 100 names, with plans to reduce it further before starting full-time training."

"The Mars One astronauts were to be "sequestered in a remote location," the company had said, where they could practice living in (and repairing) a habitat like one designed for life on Mars."

"Delays and setbacks forced the company to push its launch deadline back by nearly 10 years."

"Now, instead of moving toward its goal of launching a Mars mission in 2031, the company "is in administration," according to its website"

"2030-2031 transfer window, where SpaceX intends to start sending humans to Mars. In this window, SpaceX wants 100 landers with 150 tons per ship to deliver, people, equipment for road and pad construction, habitat construction, and to increase the available power and storage capacity of what would be a Mars colony at this point."

"These are very ambitious goals for SpaceX, as nothing like this has ever been attempted in human history. Some of these goals will likely be pushed back by a transfer window or two."

"The pattern across the eight-year sequence is roughly consistent: Musk announces an ambitious Mars timeline approximately five years in advance, SpaceX makes substantial but not complete progress on the prerequisite technologies, the announced date arrives without the mission, and a new target is announced for the next transfer window."

"The next Mars transfer window opens in November 2026 and closes in December."

"Sometime within the first several decades of this 21st century, humans will likely venture to Mars, back to the Moon, and possibly to other locations within our solar system."

"the predominant viewpoint is still that a later human exploration phase, conducted in conjunction with accompanying robotic equipment, will bring powers of observation and decision making not anticipated from robots within the expected time frame of a first human mission to Mars."

"Almost 20% of articles evaluated did not comply with journal policies on documenting consent, and, in an additional 30%, it was not possible to document compliance because journal policies did not require documentation within the manuscript."

"It does not establish any rights for any person and is not binding on FDA or the public."

"For an IRB to approve a waiver or alteration of informed consent requirements for minimal risk clinical investigations, the rule requires an IRB to find and document five criteria"

"in an additional 30%, it was not possible to document compliance because journal policies did not require documentation within the manuscript."

"intended to assist IRBs, clinical investigators, and sponsors"

"FDA is not including a requirement in Sec. 50.22 that the investigator obtain consent from subjects or LARs if feasible"

"Seemingly, the death of a research participant renders new consent ‘‘impracticable’’."

"Waivers or alterations of informed consent under Sec. 50.22 are intended for situations where it is impracticable to carry out the clinical investigation, as designed, without the waiver or alteration."

"Minors cannot consent to research participation by law, requiring parental consent, and participation must be fully voluntary without affecting access to standard care."

"Although the particular case of research with deceased individuals’ data is not directly addressed, it would be covered by the third criteria, above, since death makes obtaining new consent impracticable."

"that provision requires IRB approval of informed consent procedures and an informed consent document that are to be used to obtain consent from a subject or LAR, when feasible."

"But they cannot consent to take part in research. parents will have to consent on their behalf."

"A requirement of individual informed consent would make the conduct of the research impracticable[33]."

"原计划于2029年前后发射，在 月球南极 莫顿环形山 （ 英语 ： Mons Mouton ） [ 註 2 ] 着陆，与 嫦娥七号 组成中国 月球南极 的科研站基本型。"

"嫦娥八号也是 国际月球科研站 建设阶段中国方面的第一个探测器"

"JAXA said the mission will also explore the possibility of using Phobos as a "natural space station" by establishing the requirements for a round trip—something "essential for crewed Mars exploration.""

"The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency's launch of the spacecraft Tuesday on a new Japanese mainstay H-3 rocket comes as the United States, China and others consider sending astronauts to Mars."

"China plans to launch its own Mars sample return mission in 2028."

"The uncrewed Martian Moons eXploration (MMX) probe, a collaboration with US and European space agencies, as well as numerous universities and tech companies, could also help lay the groundwork for eventual human exploration."

"Those involved hope that it will help lay the groundwork for eventual human exploration."

"scientists to consider using a Martian moon as a base for a future crewed mission to the planet"

"The mission would also explore the possibility of using Phobos as a “natural space station” by establishing the requirements for a round trip to Mars — something “essential for crewed Mars exploration,” JAXA said."

"Japan and China could end up neck and neck in returning samples from the Martian system, as both are targeting 2031."

"China's Tianwen-3 spacecraft is scheduled for launch around 2028 and hopes to return Mars samples to Earth as early as 2031—potentially before the Japanese mission's return."

"that can help future crewed Mars exploration."

"Meanwhile, China has announced its Tianwen-3 spacecraft is scheduled for launch in about 2028 and hopes to return Mars samples to Earth as early as 2031 — potentially before MMX."

"U.S. and Chinese space agencies have also been vying to be the first to return rock samples from Mars' surface back to Earth."

"Only the third module will return home, with the samples stored in a capsule."

"Staying longer in outer space will inevitably increase the health risks of astronauts due to the exposures to galactic cosmic rays and solar particle events."

"can disrupt or adversely affect immune cell biology"

"Significant reduction of inflammation and DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) activity and rescue of mitochondria functions are observed after antagomir treatment."

"Exposure may pose a significant hazard to space flight crews not only during the mission but also later, when slow-developing adverse effects could finally become apparent."

"International Space Station (ISS) datasets establish that 6-month microgravity exposure produces a 5.3–9.0% reduction in paraspinal cross-sectional area"

"spaceflight alters host-microbiome interactions"

"Using data from astronaut participants in the NASA Twin Study, Inspiration4, and JAXA missions, we reveal the genes and pathways implicated in the action of these antagomirs are altered in humans."

"Numerous animal and cellular models have repeatedly demonstrated the negative effects of high-energy charged-particle on the brain and cognitive function."

"recorded a mean lumbar spine BMD reduction of 6.2% over six months, with incomplete recovery at twelve months"

"their combined effects during spaceflight remain less understood"

"However, research on the role of space radiation in potentiating cardiovascular dysfunction is still in its early stages."

"estimated lumbar vertebral compressive strength fell by an average of 10% after 6-month missions"

"This exposure carries risks to the central nervous system (CNS) that could jeopardize the mission and astronaut health."

"Prolonged spaceflight can induce physiologic and pathologic abnormalities in the central nervous system (CNS)."

"The SDI in its current form does not include a radiation-driven term, and this is a limitation that reflects the state of the evidence rather than a judgment that radiation is unimportant."

"Multiple studies have shown that GCR simulation induces a maladaptive activation of microglia - the brain-resident immune cells."

"including microgravity, physiological/psychological stress, and radiation from galactic cosmic rays (GCR) and solar particle events (SPEs) outside of low earth orbit (LEO)"

"GCR simulation also induced synaptic changes resulting in lasting cognitive and behavioral defects."

"Oxidative stress or other environmental stressors may disrupt BBB integrity and increase permeability leading to immune cell infiltration and undesirable neuroinflammation."

"Female and male mice show different susceptibilities to GCR exposure, and evidence suggests this sexually dimorphic response is linked to microglia."

"Manipulating microglia can prevent the development of cognitive deficits in male mice exposed to components of GCR."

"NASA has delayed the launch of its Artemis II lunar fly-by mission by at least a month."

"10L: First crewed lunar landing (September 1968)"

"At that time, the first lunar landing mission was projected to take place in 2020."

"Most importantly, the test revealed NASA still has not fully resolved recurring hydrogen leaks that delayed the launch of the unpiloted Artemis I test flight by several months in 2022."

"During critical pre-launch testing Monday, mission managers uncovered a number of issues that prevented the completion of the test."

"Korolev's death in 1966, along with various technical and administrative reasons, as well as a lack of financial support, resulted in both programs being delayed."

"Going into the countdown rehearsal, NASA officials hoped a smooth test would clear the way to launch the Artemis II mission as soon as Sunday, February 8."

"resulted in the destruction of the rocket and the entire launch complex, which delayed the N1-L3 program for two years."

"Design work on a Blue Origin robotic lunar lander began in 2016."

"The leak appeared in the same location it did during the Artemis I launch campaign nearly three years ago."

"Hydrogen leaks plagued testing of NASA's Artemis I mission in 2022."

"The Proton-based Zond program was canceled in 1970"

"Agency officials said in 2022 that the safe limit was a 4 percent concentration of hydrogen gas in the housing around the fueling connector. Hydrogen levels exceeded NASA’s safety limit multiple times during the practice countdown that ran from Monday into early Tuesday."

"A valve that pressurizes the vehicle required additional attention and took more time to close the hatch than anticipated."

"However, N1-L3 (as well as N1F-L3M) program was canceled in May 1974"

"Bigelow Commercial Space Station or Space Complex Alpha , was a proposed private space habitat scheduled for 2021 initial deployment although this was suspended indefinitely as a result of Bigelow temporarily laying off their entire staff due to the COVID-19 pandemic ."

"NASA said the countdown terminated “due to a spike in the liquid hydrogen leak rate.”"

"Cancelled to speed up production and launch of the Artemis V and the NASA lunar base"

"The X-20 Dyna-Soar was a United States Air Force spaceplane intended to be used for military missions. The program to develop the spaceplane began in 1957 and was cancelled in 1963."

"Buran , a Soviet space shuttle cancelled after only one uncrewed orbital flight in 1988."